Overview of evidence on mechanisms affecting the outcomes of terrestrial multiple-use protected areas

Multiple-use protected areas (PAs) aim to safeguard biodiversity and contribute to human well-being, making them key instruments in meeting the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) goals. However, it is currently unclear what evidence exists on the impacts of human activities performed within them. This limits our understanding of how multiple-use PAs are expected to meet their dual objectives. Here, we aim to address this gap by collating evidence relating to human activities taking place within multiple-use PAs globally. Results show that few studies have a low risk of bias, and study locations are not representative of PAs’ geographical distribution. Activities putting the greatest pressure on PAs’ biodiversity are not those most often researched, and studies on ecological outcomes outweigh socioeconomic ones. To be able to track progress toward achieving the GBF goals, we need to improve the quality of evidence, engage at the local level, and focus on knowledge gaps that are aligned with protected area targets.